An Objective Ancestry Test for Fossil Bones ⁸

© Joseph Mastropaolo, Ph.D.* 2002 [*Professor Emeritus, California State University, Long
Beach; Adjunct Professor, Institute for Creation Research]

Abstract

By the look of the curve of a fossil toe bone and the slant of its joint surface, recent
reports concluded that it was from an ancestor of apes and humans, Ardipithecus ramidus
kadabba, that walked on two legs. The question arose as to whether there might be a simple
method yielding objective evidence to bridge the gap between those scant subjective
determinations and that far-reaching conclusion. Accordingly, an objective, valid, reliable
and calibrated correlational method of substantiating that conclusion was devised and
successfully tested. For monkey (baboon), ape (chimpanzee) and human, similar were the
ape and monkey, dissimilar were the human and monkey and most dissimilar were the ape
and human. The monkey and ape similarities to human bone were less than for an
anatomically different bone. The fossil toe bone had scant similarity to humans,
dissimilarity to monkeys and most dissimilarity to apes with the dissimilarities to monkeys
and apes like those for an anatomically different bone. The results of this objective ancestry
test contradicted the conclusion that Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba was an ancestor of apes
and humans that walked on two legs. Instead, these objective analyses provided evidence
that apes are similar to monkeys, but monkeys and apes have no similarity to humans.

Introduction

Amongst other fossils, Haile-Salassie reported a left, fourth digit, phalanx 1, toe bone
31.9 mm long designated Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba, AME-VP-1/71, 5.2 Myr. He reported:

AME-VP-1/71 shows a mosaic of features shared with both apes and A. afarensis. The proximal pedal phalanges of A. afarensis are unique in combining both strong phalangeal curvature (similar to apes) with a dorsally canted proximal joint surface (similar to later hominids). The dorsal orientation of this surface in AME-VP-1/71 may therefore constitute important evidence of a unique pedal morphology in this specimen similar to that in Hadar.1

The interpretation given by Robinson was, “This toe bone (AME-VP-1/71) proves the creature
walked on two legs. . . . How apes became human. Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba. What a new
discovery tells scientists about how our oldest ancestors stood on two legs and made an
evolutionary leap.” His artist’s conception on the cover of Time was an upright chimpanzee-like
creature with blue eyes.2 Except for the blue eyes, it bore a striking resemblance to the Piltdown
forgery of 1912 – 1952.³

It is not clear that length was the only objective measurement made on AME-VP-1/71,
but if it was, then the question arose as to whether there might be a simple method to yield
objective evidence to bridge the gap between those scant subjective determinations and that farreaching
conclusion.

Accordingly, an atlas of primate gross anatomy by Swindler and Wood was obtained to
scan the renderings of the comparable bone in baboons, chimpanzees and humans.⁴ If AME-VP-
1/71 tested intermediate between chimpanzees and humans and resembled least baboons, then
the conclusions of Haile-Salassie and Robinson would have objective support. The conceptual
design of this test was to objectively determine for each bone a central axis and the deviations
from it to the lateral and medial bone borders at decile distances from the proximal to the distal
end. For each bone in the same order, these deviations in tenths of millimeters would be
tabulated and correlated. A high correlation between two bones would indicate a high degree of
similarity.

Methods

For a plantar or dorsal view, from proximal to distal, a straight sideline was drawn
joining the lateral-proximal extreme of the bone with the lateral-distal extreme. The same was
done for the medial extremes. See A and B of Figure 1.

                                                
Figure 1. The toe bone of Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba. Left foot, digit 4, phalanx 1, plantar view,
shown with sidelines A and B, proximal and distal lines D and E, central axis C, and perpendicular
distances from the central axis to the bone borders laterally and medially at each decile of its length, 0.1
to 0.9.

To determine the central axis, a straight line was drawn perpendicular to the medial
sideline such that it provided a tangent to the proximal extreme of the bone then crossed the
lateral sideline. See D of Figure 1. The same was done for the distal extreme of the bone. See E
of Figure 1. Between A and B, D and E were divided in half to determine the course of the
central axis of the bone. See C of Figure 1.

From the bone’s proximal to distal extremes, the central axis was divided into deciles.
See 0.1 to 0.9 of Figure 1.

From the central axis at each decile, the perpendicular distance to the lateral border of the
bone was measured in tenths of millimeters. The same was determined to the medial border of
the bone.

For each bone, for each decile proximal to distal, all the lateral distances were tabulated
in order followed by all the medial distances. These scores approximated the bone contours and
when treated by the correlational r  they took on the attributes of proportionalities thereby
permitting comparisons regardless of image magnification. The correlational r expressed the
mathematical magnitude of the similarity from 0.0, no similarity, to 1.0, perfect in similarity.
This test was validated by determining the correlation of the bone with itself at a different
magnification. This test should be independent of image magnification and the correlation should
approach 1.0.

This test also was validated by determining the correlation of the same bone in two
different atlases. Given atlases with perfect fidelity, this test ought to be independent of the atlas
employed and the correlation ought to approach 1.0.

The criterion for similarity was that a correlation exceed the correlation between the
phalanx 1 toe bone and its anatomical neighbor, the phalanx 2 toe bone. A correlation equal to or
less than that was considered as dissimilar as a bone for an anatomically neighboring bone. A
correlation equal to or less than the one between the phalanx 1 and phalanx 3 toe bones was
considered as grossly dissimilar as a bone for an anatomical neighbor two bones away. See Figure 2.

 

                                                
Figure 2.Phalanx 1, 2 and 3 from Spalteholz, 1900, p. 146. The correlation between phalanx 1
and 2 was 0.657 and between 1 and 3 it was 0.271. Any correlation amongst AME-VP-1/71 bone
and human, monkey, or ape phalanx 1 toe bones equal to or less than 0.657 was considered as
dissimilar as for an anatomically neighboring bone. Any correlation equal to or less than 0.271
was considered as grossly dissimilar as for a bone anatomically two bones away.

The Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba AME-VP-1/71 bone was correlated with the baboon
(Papio cynocephalus) bone (see Figure 3), the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) bone (see Figure
4), and the human (Homo sapiens) bone (see Figures 5 and 6). The baboon, chimpanzee and
human bones also were compared to each other.

Figure 3. The baboon, Papio cynocephalus, toe bones plantar view as shown in Swindler and Wood.⁴

Figure 4. The chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes, toe bones plantar view as shown in Swindler and Wood.⁴

Figure 5. The human, Homo sapiens, toe bones plantar view as shown in Swindler and Wood.⁴

Figure 6. The human, Homo sapiens, toe bones plantar view as shown in Spalteholz.⁴

Results

The plantar view of bone AME-VP-1/71 as shown in Nature correlated 0.975 with the
same bone at 2.26 greater magnification. That suggested that this test was independent of any
magnification or reduction in the photographic images of the fossil. The photograph of AMEVP-
1/71 shown in Time correlated 0.983 with the same image at double the magnification. This
result confirmed that magnification did not significantly affect the correlation and additionally
demonstrated that the test was reliable and calibrated for the effects of magnification.

The dorsal view of the fourth digit, phalanx 1, human toe bone shown in Swindler and
Wood correlated 0.906 with the same human bone in Spalteholz.⁵ That suggested that the atlas
employed would lower the correlation to about 0.9. However, the plantar views correlated 0.764
and that lack of agreement between views seemed worthy of further investigation. To illumine
the cause of the disparity, plantar and dorsal views were correlated for each atlas. For the
Spalteholz atlas, the plantar and dorsal views correlated 0.936 whereas for the Swindler and
Wood atlas their plantar and dorsal views correlated 0.605. That suggested that the cause of the
lower correlation between atlases for the plantar views was the lower reliability of the plantar
view in the Swindler and Wood atlas compared to the Spalteholz atlas. This result suggested that
the atlas employed lowered the correlation to about 0.906 for the reliable views.

The phalanx 1 toe bone was correlated 0.657 with the phalanx 2 toe bone and 0.271 with
the phalanx 3 toe bone.⁵ For this study, a correlation of 0.657 or less was considered dissimilar
and a correlation of 0.271 or less grossly dissimilar. See Figure 2.

The AME-VP-1/71 bone shown in Nature was from a left foot but it was compared to the
same bone in the right foot because the atlases did not show the left foot. The baboon,
chimpanzee and human S&W correlations were made with the Swindler and Wood atlas whereas
the human S correlations were made with the Spalteholz atlas. Accordingly, the plantar view of
AME-VP-1/71 correlated 0.575 with the baboon bone, 0.491 with the chimpanzee bone, 0.743
with the human S&W bone, 0.613 with the human S bone. The baboon and chimpanzee bones
were correlated 0.856. These results suggested that the AME-VP-1/71 bone had some similarity
to humans, less to baboons and least similarity to chimpanzees. However, all of those similarities
were lower than the baboon-chimpanzee similarity. The lack of higher correlations with humans
and chimpanzees and the chimpanzee correlation out of the evolutionary order suggested further
research.

Accordingly, another analysis was done with a more distinct plantar image of the AMEVP-
1/71 bone.⁶ In this analysis the AME-VP-1/71 bone was correlated 0.615 with the baboon
bone, 0.461 with the chimpanzee bone, 0.761 with the human S&W bone, 0.681 with the human
S bone. Each correlation was slightly higher than the previous analysis with the chimpanzee
correlation slightly lower. The lack of evolutionary sense, the suggestion that chimpanzees
evolved to baboons, persisted and none of these correlations were as high as the 0.856 baboonchimpanzee
correlation.

This suggested investigating the dorsal view of AME-VP-1/71 and correlating it to the
dorsal views in the atlases. The AME-VP-1/71 bone correlated 0.460 with the baboon bone,
0.308 with the chimpanzee bone, 0.739 with the human S&W bone, 0.873 with the human S
bone. Except for human S bone, the correlations were lower and in the same order. The baboonchimpanzee
correlation was 0.806. This analysis yielded no additional clarification.

In a final attempt at clarification, for each bone the dorsal view data were combined with
the plantar view data. For these combined data, the AME-VP-1/71 bone correlated 0.475 with
the baboon bone, 0.377 with the chimpanzee bone, 0.729 with the human S&W bone, 0.722 with
the human S bone. The baboon-chimpanzee correlation was 0.820 whereas the baboon-human
correlations were 0.329 and 0.549 for S&W and S, respectively. The chimpanzee-human
correlations were 0.197 and 0.332 for S&W and S, respectively. These combined data confirmed
that the AME-VP-1/71 bone had scant similarity to humans (compare Figure 1 with Figure 2,
Phalanx I), was dissimilar to baboons and most dissimilar to chimpanzees. The monkey was
similar to the ape, dissimilar to the human and the most dissimilar was the ape and human. The
ancestral sequence suggested was not the Haile-Salassie and Robinson monkey-great ape-human
but rather great ape-monkey. These objective analyses identified the Haile-Salassie and
Robinson conclusions as farfetched speculations.

Discussion

Oxnard did complex multivariate statistical analyses and found, "Nor, however, can man
be described as a mosaic of other forms. In almost all studies man lies quite separately from the
spectra of non-human species . . . " This multi-dimensional method employing rotations by
means of matrix algebra and a computer found essentially what the present simpler method
found but the complex method had no cutoff for similarity, which the present simpler method
has.7 This may also give insight to the concern that a simpler two-dimensional method may fall
short on three dimensional objects. Like errors, shortcomings do not help but rather hinder
finding differences and high correlations. If a simpler method finds what a complex method
finds, then that suggests that all the complexity may not be necessary. This should also clarify
whether or not confounding variables like dimorphism may need special consideration. If
dimorphism were critical, then it would act like error or anything else causing undue variability
and would diminish correlations toward zero rather than allow a correlation as high as 0.906.
From the 18 scores, the present method approximates the outline of the bone. When those
scores are treated by the correlational r, they acquire the attributes of proportionalities. If the
same bone is magnified, the proportions remain constant and that is why the r’s for the two
independent magnification trials were so high and so close, 0.975 and 0.983. The bone and its
magnified image have the same contours and the high correlation indicates a high degree of
similarity. Subjectively, investigators may be confused by size but the r is not. Had there been no
measurement error, the r's would have been 1.0, perfect in similarity.

If confounding variables and much error are inherent in the atlas materials, then the
correlations would tend toward zero while losing the power to discriminate. Contrarily, if the
atlases were the product of careful work, then the correlations should be high and should reliably
discriminate. And that is what was found. Human bone in one atlas compared to another
correlated 0.906 and that for this study was considered high and reliable. The same bone at
different magnifications was 0.975. When tried again with a different image it was 0.983. For
this study, that demonstrated that the test was reliable, it determined consistently, and was
calibrated for the effects of magnification. The test thereby proved valid, reliable, calibrated and
anyone should be able to reproduce those findings, which means it is objective as well. That
contrasts sharply with the subjective, unquantifiable method of inspection employed by Haile-
Salassie which likely is unreliable and uncalibrated.

Errors tend to be normally and stochastically distributed about the true value. For tests of
statistical significance, they increase the variability which is in the denominator of say a t test
thereby giving a t too small to be significant. In the case of a correlation, the tendency to scatter
equally above and below the true value yields an r close to 0.00. Therefore, errors or
shortcomings are likely to hinder finding statistical significance or a high correlation. If
statistical significance is found or if a high correlation is found it is in spite of errors or
confounding variables not because of them.

Dimorphism is a confounding variable and would have an effect similar to anything else
causing error or variability. It hinders finding significance or a high correlation. For both atlases,
the human sample number and gender(s) were unknown. For the Swindler and Wood atlas, there
were six chimpanzees and 22 baboons all of unspecified genders. If genders whether in small or
large samples made a significant difference, then the humans probably would not have correlated
as high as 0.906 and the baboons and chimpanzees probably would not have correlated across
species lines as high as 0.820.

A photograph may be taken of a bone and even if not to scale its proportionalities will be
the same as the original. From a scale photograph, a tracing may be made and the same may be
said of it. From several preparations, their tracings may be overlaid and the median may be
identified and used in an atlas. If all of the same bones had their shapes quantified and averaged,
then the rendering from those digital data would be very close to the one graphically determined.
The graphical method may be similar to the methods used for atlases and if it were quite faulty
then an r of 0.906 should not have been possible. Perhaps, anatomists deserve more respect than
they are usually accorded.

Some investigators assume that atlases may be constructed with artistic license rather
than carefully from dissections. That was not the case for the atlases used in this study. Swindler
and Wood stated in their preface, "The illustrations of Papio and Pan have been drawn from
original dissections of twenty-two baboons and six chimpanzees, and represent composite
illustrations based upon the specimens."⁴ Spalteholz stated in the author’s preface, "The
illustrations, in all cases, have been faithfully drawn from original preparations, but at the same
time no copy of a definite individual case, but always a composite from several sections has been
made."⁵

The human bones used by Spalteholz in 1900 probably were different from the human
bones used by Swindler and Wood in 1973 yet for the reliable views the r was 0.906. Let us
pretend that the Spalteholz bones were the ancestors of the Swindler and Wood bones. Let us
suppose further that a human and his ancestor is likely to be correlated about 0.906. Let us call
this the top of the scale of similarity. Now, what is needed is a lower limit of similarity. Any lay
person will observe the significant difference in proportions between phalanx 1 and phalanx 2
and would easily judge them dissimilar (see Figure 2). That level of dissimilarity had an r of
0.657. Now, there is objectively established a range of similarity expected to be between 0.906
and 0.657. If r is lower than 0.657 then the bones are as dissimilar as a bone for an anatomically
different bone. The expectation is that if there is ancestry, then the bones will be in the range of
0.657 to 0.906. This was confirmed with humans compared to humans, 0.906, and across species
lines monkeys compared to apes, 0.820. Monkeys and humans, even more so apes and humans,
were as dissimilar as for an anatomically different bone. The method established those criteria
objectively, validly, reliably and with calibration. Scientifically, that may be considered a higher
standard than the subjective inspection that led to the extravagant claims of Haile-Salassie and
Robinson.

This study used the atlases as standards and they worked well. Had the atlases been
faulty, then the correlations would have approached zero in every comparison and the study
would have failed. Had that happened, then there may have been the need to go out and obtain
materials. The human bones and those of chimpanzees and baboons would have been available
for random sampling but not the solitary fossil bone. Therefore, the sampling approach would
have a benefit only if the atlases were unreliable and if the sampling would have provided more
reliable data. Given reliable atlases, it did not seem a judicious expenditure of resources to
duplicate work already adequate for successful studies.

A case may be made for postponing the study and the report until an adequate sample of
fossils is found. That is like allowing what is perceived to be the only statistical design available,
sample statistics, to dictate scientific activity. Statistics are meant to be a tool, not the master.
The alternative is to seek or invent a statistical design that accommodates a sample of one. By
making repeated determinations on that sample of one, which may be considered random
samples normally distributed, then conventional statistical tools may be applied. The statistical
universe is that sample of one and all conclusions apply only to that sample of one. That is
exactly what was wanted for the present study of a sample of one fossil. Now the question of
scientific acceptability arises. To my knowledge this sample of one method was first reported in
the Research Quarterly in 1959 and was again used successfully and reported in a different
protocol in 1967. It is ideally suited to individualized pilot protocols especially those requiring
stringent, multiple controls. It probably has been used and reported in the literature many times
since 1967 and has been accepted undisputed for generalized application by the scientific
community for more than 40 years. That was the concept used in this study and that is why the
conclusions apply to that fossil as a sample of one and the specified atlases each treated as if they
were samples of one.

Haile-Salassie must consider that what he observes as dorsal tilting may not be
objectively and quantitatively established in the life-long bipedal range. Even if it were in the
life-long bipedal range, it is not likely to have only that similarity and no other. It is not likely to
pass a subjective test but fail an objective test. If it did, then which is to be doubted? The
protocol for an experiment must be repeatable by any scientist in any laboratory and yield the
same answer. Anyone may obtain the results of the present study. Very few have access to the
fossil and although available a better image than that shown in Nature was not made available.
By contrast, the present method is available worldwide. Haile-Salassie's is confined to a locked
drawer as was done with the Piltdown forgery of 1912-1952. The verdict ought to be put in the
hands of scientists worldwide. Although available and upon request, Haile-Salassie would not
even allow out a better image than the indistinct one that appeared in Nature.

Haile-Salassie apparently is using his eyes and subjective judgement on the slant of a
joint surface, a joint surface unavailable to the scientific community. Were it available, a way
might be found to do a parallel, objective, valid, reliable, calibrated test of similarity. It is not
available, so scientists denied access must do the best they can with whatever is available and
that is what was done. It is unfortunate that those with access do not take seriously their
responsibility to the scientific community at large and devise the objective tests themselves. That
they do not, that they make much from such meager data, that they deny access to even a better
image, and that the results of this modest study are so contradictory make one wonder whether
their purpose is to avoid rather than welcome scientific scrutiny, acceptance and application.
Was the intent instead to proceed directly from a letter to the editor of Nature¹ to the acclaim
from a cover story in Time magazine?² If they are confident of their work with nothing to hide,
then they should behave like bona fide scientists and not like those involved in the Piltdown
forgery.³

Summary and Conclusions

In summary, these results suggested that the AME-VP-1/71 bone had scant similarity to
human bone, was dissimilar to baboon bone and was most dissimilar to chimpanzee bone. The
baboon bone was similar to the chimpanzee and dissimilar to human bone. The chimpanzee was
most dissimilar to humans. Human bone had no similarity to monkey or ape bone. Therefore,
these objective ancestry analyses for fossil bones suggest that the conclusions of Haile-Salassie
and Robinson, that Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba was an ancestor of apes and humans that
walked on two legs, is farfetched speculation.

References
1. Haile-Salassie, Y.,. Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia, Nature 412:
178-181, 2001.
2. Robinson, S., Paleontology, one giant step for mankind, Time 158 (3): 54-61, 2001.
3. Walsh, J.E., Unraveling Piltdown: The Science Fraud of the Century and Its Solution,
Random House, New York, pp. 124 – 125, 1996.
4. Swindler, D. R. and C.D. Wood, An atlas of primate gross anatomy, baboon, chimpanzee, and
man, University of Washington Press, Seattle, pp. 52-55, 1973.
5. Spalteholz, W., Hand atlas of human anatomy, Volume I, S. Hirzel, Leipzig, pp. 146-149,
1900.
6. Sarfati, J., Time’s alleged ‘ape-man’ trips up (again)! CEN Tech. J. 15 (3): 7-9, 2001.
7. Oxnard,C.E. The place of australopithecines in human evolution: grounds for doubt? Nature
258: 389-395, 1975.
8. An Objective Ancestry Test for Fossil Bones was published in the peer-reviewed journal, TJ,
The In-Depth Journal of Creation 16(3): 84-88, 2002. It was selected for presentation to the
American Physiological Society Intersociety Meeting, The Power of Comparative Physiology:
Evolution, Integration, and Application, San Diego, August 24-28, 2002. The American
Physiological Society also selected it for a news release, Discovery Of The Oldest Human
Ancestor Is (again) Called Into Question (see below). The abstract of An Objective Ancestry
Test for Fossil Bones was published in The Physiologist 45 (4): 343, 2002. The data suggested
that all ape-men must be forgeries and that there never could have been a common ancestor of
chimpanzees and humans.

Joseph Mastropaolo has a B.S., M.S., Ph.D. in kinesiology and a Post-Doctoral Research Fellowship in
human physiology. As Aerospace Physiologist for Douglas Space Systems, he published two monographs
on life in space, one for humans and one for experimental animals. He taught biomechanics and
physiology at California State University, Long Beach for 26 years and was the physiologist for the
Gossamer Condor and Albatross human powered flight projects which earned a medal in physiology from
the Royal Aeronautical Society for the Kremer cross channel challenge.

News Release
Source: American Physiological Society
Date Posted: Tuesday, September 03, 2002
Web Address: http://www.the-aps.org/meetings/aps/san_diego/home.htm
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2002/09/020903071117.htm
Discovery Of The Oldest Human Ancestor Is (again) Called Into Question
San Diego, CA -- The remains included a jawbone with teeth, hand bones and foot bones,
fragments of arms, and a piece of collarbone. The remains also included a single toe bone; its
form providing strong evidence that the pre-human creatures walked upright.

The discovery by two Ethiopian scholars, Yohannes Haile-Selassie, an anthropologist
studying at the University of California at Berkeley, and Giday Wolde Gabriel, a geologist at the
university's Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico. The team discovered the first
fossils in 1997, with the latest one found in 2001.

According to the journal Nature, the fossil bones predate the oldest previously discovered
human ancestor by more than a million years. The teeth and bone fragments apparently are from
a hominid that emerged sometime after the split. The hominid is part of a newly named
subspecies of early man called Ardipithecus. The discoverers state that Ardipithecus ramidus
kadabba is a "Missing Link" -- the yet-undiscovered creature that lived at the cusp of the
evolutionary division between man and chimp -- but researcher Haile-Selassie said the hominid
certainly is very close to the branching point.

The world's media trumpeted the news of this anthropological find. Time magazine
dedicated a cover story to the discovery; a staff writer, referred to the special toe bone stating
" This (AME-VP-1/71) proves the creature walked on two legs. . . . How apes became human.
Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba. What a new discovery tells scientists about how our oldest
ancestors stood on two legs and made an evolutionary leap."

Not so fast, states a leading physiologist and an authority on the study of fossils. He
believes that if length was the only objective measurement made on AME-VP-1/71, then there
might be a simple method to yield objective evidence to bridge the gap between the scant
subjective determinations and that the far-reaching conclusion about this "evolutionary leap."
The author of "An Objective Ancestry Test for Fossil Bones," is Joseph Mastropaolo,
PhD, Professor Emeritus, California State University, Long Beach; Adjunct Professor, Institute
for Creation Research. He is presenting his findings at "The Power of Comparative Physiology:
Evolution, Integration and Application" an American Physiological Society intersociety meeting
scheduled for August 24-28, 2002, at the Town & Country Hotel, San Diego, CA. Find out more
at http://www.the-aps.org/meetings/aps/san_diego/home.html

If AME-VP-1/71 tested intermediate between chimpanzees and humans and resembled
least baboons, then the conclusions of Haile-Salassie and Robinson would have objective
support. Accordingly, a test was applied to objectively determine for each bone a central axis and
the deviations from it to the lateral and medial bone borders at decile distances from the proximal
to the distal end. For each bone in the same order, these deviations in tenths of millimeters would
be tabulated and correlated. A high correlation between two bones would indicate a high degree
of similarity.

Methodology
The Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba AME-VP-1/71 bone was correlated with the baboon
bone, the chimpanzee bone, and the human bone. The baboon, chimpanzee and human bones
also were compared to each other.

For each bone, for each decile proximal to distal, all the lateral distances were tabulated
in order followed by all the medial distances. These scores determined the
correlational r, the mathematical magnitude of the similarity expressed from 0.0, no similarity, to
1.0, perfect in similarity. This test was validated by determining the correlation of the bone with
itself at a different magnification. This test should be independent of image magnification and
the correlation should approach 1.0.

This test also was affirmed by identifying the correlation of the same bone in two
different anthropological atlases. Given atlases with perfect fidelity, this test ought to be
independent of the atlas employed and the correlation ought to approach 1.0. The criterion for
similarity was that a correlation exceed the correlation between the phalanx 1 toe bone and its
anatomical neighbor, the phalanx 2 toe bone. A correlation equal to or less than that was
considered as dissimilar as a bone for an anatomically neighboring bone. A correlation equal to
or less than the one between the phalanx 1 and phalanx 3 toe bones was considered as grossly
dissimilar as a bone for an anatomical neighbor two bones away.

Results
An assessment of the bones from the monkey (baboon), ape (chimpanzee) and human,
found similarity between the ape and monkey, dissimilarity between the human and monkey, and
the least similarity among apes and humans. The monkey and ape similarities to human bone
were less than for an anatomically different bone.

The fossil toe bone had scant similarity to humans, dissimilarity to monkeys and most
dissimilarity to apes with the dissimilarities to monkeys and apes like those for an anatomically
different bone.

Conclusions
The research results suggest that the famous AME-VP-1/71 bone had scant similarity to
human bone, was dissimilar to baboon bone and was most dissimilar to chimpanzee bone. The
baboon bone was similar to the chimpanzee and dissimilar to human bone. The chimpanzee was
most dissimilar to humans. Human bone had no similarity to monkey or ape bone. Accordingly,
the objective ancestry analyses for fossil bones assert that the conclusions of Haile-Salassie and
Robinson were farfetched speculations.

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