Changing Habits and Addictions Using Learning Principles

(Behavior Modification Methods)

Tom G. Stevens PhD

Index

1. Learning and Motivation Notes

2. Characteristics of Cues, Responses, and Outcomes

3. Avoidance Behavior

4. Designing a Motivational Habit Change Contract

5. Reduce Your Craving: Covert Aversive Conditioning for Addictions

Maximize Your Cnances of Successful Habit Change

Introduction and Overview to These Behavior Modification Methods

If you don't know what operant (or instrumental) conditioning is, then study this section and try to think through some examples from your own life. If you do know these principles well, then you might use it for a review. These are non-controversial principles taught as psychological laws in every introductory psychology class. B.F. Skinner's classical experiments used pigeons. Skinner put each pigeon in a cage that also contained a disk that could be made black or white. If the disk was the proper color (eg white), and the pigeon happened to peck the disk, then a food pellet would drop into a tray. Thus when the DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS (the white disk) was present and the pigeon performed the TARGET RESPONSE (pecking the disk), then the pigeon received the REINFORCER (the food pellet). If the disk were black and the pigeon pecked, it got no food. Results were highly consistent. After a few learning trials, when the disk was white, the pigeons would peck (if they were hungry), and when it was black they would not. The control over pigeons behavior was almost literally like flicking a light switch and watching the light come on. This degree of control over behavior is dramatic. The diagrams below illustrate the sequence.

Operant conditioning analysis and research has been applied to almost all animal and human behaviors through the years since, with very consistent positive results. In the case of humans, the reason that operant conditioning is not so simple as with a pigeon, is that in any one situation we may experience literally hundreds of discriminative stimuli operating at once. Some are external and some are internal thoughts, feelings, etc. Another complicating factor is that often one behavior may receive a complex of mixed positive (reinforcing stimuli) and negative (punishing stimuli) as consequences of that behavior. We may not even be aware of them all. To use operant behavior modification effectively, first analyze the situation well enough to understand what the most important DISCRIMINATIVE and REINFORCING/PUNISHING STIMULI are that are affecting our TARGET BEHAVIOR(S). The diagrams and steps described below outline ways for more systematically designing a treatment program to change habits. Often it is a good idea to study a BASELINE PERIOD without any intervention, then try an intervention and observe the results (the TREATMENT PERIOD).

i included a section on AVOIDANCE BEHAVIOR(S). Many times the reward for doing something (or not doing something you want to do instead) is avoiding some negative (punishing) stimulus/outcome such as criticism, rejection, doing an unpleasant task, pain, anxiety, etc. Learning to beef up the reinforcers and dealing with underling issues increasing your anxiety, etc. are ways of overcoming avoidance behavior. (See chapters in the book for help.)

REDUCE CRAVINGS AND URGES TO UNDESIRABLE BEHAVIORS. To conquer addictions such as smoking, overeating, substance abuse, and sexual fetishes, it is vital to reduce craving and urges for those stimuli. There are relatively little know methods for reducing those cravingts and urges. Learning how to reduce craving and urges to do something you want to stop doing is an important part of any treatment program, and there is no better way than through aversive conditioning (done properly). I provided some simple examples below to help. You really can do this yourself using simple methods outline below. I have taught clients and students how to use these behavior modification methods themselves for many years, and found that they work very well when the client/student is motivated to change. These methods don't work well (clinically) when applied to someone who does not want to cooperate or someone with motivation that is too mixed. In those case they need other types of therapy instead or first.

1. Learning and Motivation Notes

BASIC PRINCIPLES

● Operant Conditioning: Responses, Consequences, Cues

● Variables Affecting Learning and Motivation

● Avoidance Behavior

CONTRACTING

● Informal: “If…Then” Promise / Threat ≈ Consequences

● Formal Contracts: Steps, Record Keeping / Assessment

APPROACH POSITIVE, AVOID NEGATIVE CUES

● Non-social Environments / Situations

● Social Environments / Situations: Related to R; Reference Groups; Treatment / Support Persons and Groups

COVERT BEHAVIOR CHANGE METHODS

● Theory

● Covert Aversive Conditioning and Covert Punishment

● Covert Positive Conditioning and Reinforcement

● “In-Situation” and Special Covert Conditioning Sessions (Also, later systematic desensitization, covert modeling, rehearsal, etc.)

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2. Characteristics of Cues, Responses, and Outcomes (Reinforcements and Punishments)

CUE => RESPONSE =>OUTCOME

CUES

RESPONSES

OUTCOMES

♦ Environment

● physical environment

● social

● information-feedback

♦ Self-generated ● sensory

● appetite /

aversions /

values

● goals, plans

● thoughts, ideas, reasons

● automatic response cue

● images

● emotions

Types

● verbal

● expressive

● actions

● thoughts

● emotions?

● physiological?

Reinforcement-Punishmen t

Reinforcer: Give positive or take away negative;

Punisher: Take away positive or give negative;

♦ Types

● material

● activity

● social

● knowledge of results

● promotion—freedom

● symbolic—token

● self-administered

♦ Amount

● delay

● schedule

● certainty

● response or

time contingent

● frequency

● deprivation—

satiation (variety)

Example for Pigeons:

White Disk => Bar Press => Food

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3. Avoidance Behavior

Avoidance Behavior is behavior to avoid negative consequences. It includes many dysfunctional habits (smoking and other addictions, passive -nonassertive behavior, withdrawal, etc.) . Better to cope constructively with potential negative consequences.

CUE

RESPONSE

CONSEQUENCE

♦ External Cues

● Ex. 1: stranger

● Ex. 2: Complex Problem

● Ex. 3: Dentist

● Ex. 4: Term Paper

Assignment

♦ Internal Cues

● anxiety

● boredom

♦ What am I avoiding?

● the consequence—

often delayed but usually

has immediate anxiety

♦ Old Responses

● avoid situation

and/or

● do other things

and/or

● think about other things

Examples:

● smoke

● eat

● do chores

● watch TV

♦ New Responses

Positive Alternative Responses

(Coping)

● Thinking & Action to Solve

Problem

● Ex. 1: talk to stranger,

learn to talk to them

● Ex. 2: problem-solving

● Ex. 3: go to dentist

● Ex. 4: work on term paper

or get help

♦ External Consequences

● Ex. 1: avoid rejection

● Ex. 2: avoid confusion

● Ex. 3: avoid dentist/pain

● Ex. 4: avoid paper/confusion

♦ Internal Consequences

● reduce anxiety

● reduce boredom

● enjoy avoidance behavior

4. Planning and Writing a Motivational Contract

Use the following steps to write a successful motivational contract. It is important to have the full cooperation of the target person (which can include yourself). This type of contract is best used when you are trying to change some persistent habit. It can also be done quite informally. However, being familiar with the following more elaborate procedure can help you use reinformcements more effectively even when done quickly and informally even for one situation.

1. Defining the Target Behavior. Carefully define the behavior(s) to be changed and the situation(s) in which it occurs. Define the behavior so that it may be counted or measured.

2. Baseline Period. Carefully observe the behavior in its situation a number of times and try to figure out what cues precede it and what possible internal and external natural reinforcers follow it. Keep a log.

3. Planning. Design a treatment approach using everything you can think of an outline it. Get help from books and others.

a) Choose the reinforcers that you will use (and any punishments or removal of reinforcers for undesirable behaviors).

b) Decide who will observe you and hand out the reinforcers. Can you trust yourself to carry through on your own? Most people need help. Find someone who can regularly evaluate the results. If you Acheat@ on yourself by taking reinforcers when you shouldn=t, get someone to hand them out to you. You must be CONSISTENT.

c) Decide how to avoid cues that lead you into old habits; seek out cues that lead you into new ones. List them and get others to help. Planning, making schedules and Ato do@ lists, writing goals, etc., can be powerful positive cues (stimulus control techniques).

d) Decide exactly how and when reinforcements are to be handed out (no less than once/week).

e) Set reasonable goals for how much you want to improve over definite time periods.

4. Writing a Contract. Write a contract. It should be clear and include a clear statement about how it can be changed. Make sure all of the persons involved have input, understand the conditions, and sign it. It is just as important for you to write a good contract if no one else is involved. Otherwise, your own thoughts and memory will not be clear on the conditions. Built into the contract should be regularly scheduled evaluation periods.

5. Treatment Period. Try out your plan and carefully observe and record the behaviors in situations in your log and/or a frequency graph.

6. Regularly Scheduled Evaluation Sessions. Evaluate the effects of treatment and revise your plans if necessary. Having regular evaluation sessions may be one of the most important single factors determining success or failure of your program. Do this during weekly self-management sessions.

7. Planning for Prolonged Change. Once the new habit is established, then try to design a program to shift over your reliance from artificial reinforcers to natural ones.

C Continue contract indefinitely or B use Abooster@ contracts (go on old contract if go to old behavior)

C Associate more with reference groups/individuals who motivate you to continue new behavior.

C Expose self to situations where can get more natural reinforcement for new behaviors.

5. Reduce Craving using the Effective Technique of Aversive Conditioning

Aversive Conditioning has helped people quit smoking and other addictive habits, helped people overcome sexual fetishes and other undesired sexual habits, etc. By conditioning an aversive response to a stimulus that you are addicted to, it helps reduce the positive attraction of the stimulus (eg. cigarettes, candy, a sexual fetish object, a drug, etc.). Reviews of research found it to be the single most effective technique to stop smoking.

In one experiment, we helped smokers stop smoking by putting a group of 12 in a small room, and having them smoke one cigarette after another until each person felt sick at their stomach and a very parched throat. Participants almost all were smoke-free a year later; and told us it was the most effective part of the treatment. They said it really helped reduce their desire to smoke. Some even said they didn't even like to be around smoke after that (very unusual for smokers). People have eaten sweets until they got almost sick to reduce cravings for food.

When in real situations, after the conditioning experience, when you see the tempting stimulus and start to get cravings, relive the aversive conditioning experience as vividly as you can--especially the sickening feeling. Vomiting seems to be a powerful counter-measure to our bodies have developed to help us avoid harmful substances.

Covert means that instead of really doing something, you imagine either the entire sequence of tempting stimulus (eg. being in a room with people smoking), starting to get an urge, quickly imagining an aversive stimulus (eg. having too much smoke and getting a vomiting feeling), avoidance or escape from the situation (eg. leaving the room and going into fresh air in a beautiful scene), and feeling relief and feeling good about the self-control you have initiated for getting control of a difficult situation and going "one-day-at-a-time" free from your temptation. Joseph Cautela pioneered formal clinical and other studies of this method. When done properly, with full cooperation of the person being treated, it can be very effective.

If you are a smoker and want to stop smoking, try this Rapid Smoking Technique

Go into a small room such as a closet or small bathroom, smoke one cigarette after another until your throat feels very parched and you start to feel sick at your stomach. Then leave the room. Vividly recall this experience whenever you are temped to smoke, and DO NOT SMOKE. If you do, then repeat the procedure. Keep doing this until you are smoke free. Literature has shown this to be a very safe procedure healthwise. Any small negative affects are far outweighed by the huge positive effects of no longer smoking. Of course if you have a serious heart condition or other health condition, you should consult with your physician.

It is wise to use the above techniques first in self-therapy sessions, then as you gain a noticeably increased aversion or decreased craving, try it in real life. Avoid the most difficult situations, and start with easier ones. Use covert conditioning in the situation if you need to or simply escape the situation if needed. At all costs, it is important "not to take the first drink" which can reverse a lot of previous hard work.

Combining these techniques with each other and with other methods--especially the cognitive therapy techniques suggested on this website--can be much more

effective than any single technique alone. Discovering underlying motivation and beliefs that may be subtly reinforcing the habit is an important part ot the treatment

program. If these techniques do not work, then probably factors such as these are undermining your program, and you may need

Joining groups such as 12-step programs and Weight Watchers is highly recommended. They can provide a great deal of information

and support for habit change. These techniques can be useful supplements to such programs.

For more help on any of these behavior modification topics, look under topics such as "behavior modification," "covert aversive conditioning," etc.

Changing Habits and Addictions Using Learning Principles

CUE => RESPONSE =>OUTCOME

White Disk => Bar Press => Food

Situation(s) / Cues

Target Behaviors

Consequences

External Cues

Old Behaviors (Undesireable behaviors)

New Behaviors

(New behaviors that lead to same or better reinforcers)

Old

New Consequences

5. Reduce Craving using the Effective Technique of Aversive Conditioning

Positive