Launching JAABC into the Heart of
Civilization
Dr. Z. S. Demirdjian,
California State University, Long Beach,
CA
When Alexander the Great conquered the ancient world, legend has it that he had a vision to homogenize all of the people of his empire in the image of Greece through education and intermarriage. To realize his dream, he began building cities in strategic locations of his ever-enlarging empire. He named these cities Alexandria after him. Following Aristotle's (his former teacher and mentor's) directives, he then established in each city a school for the Helenization of the subject people's customs and culture. To breath life into these schools, he endowed them each with a library. Soon students and scholars converged there to write, edit, and translate publications from all over the world, even as far as from China.
Of all the libraries in the world, the Library of Alexandria in ancient Egypt
was the greatest of them all. It was the Library of Congress of the year 300
B.C. Vested with the world's foremost philosophers, mathematicians, and
teachers, this library earned the sobriquet "The University of Alexandria" early
in the 20°' century; today, history displays it as an inimitable science center.
The library thus became the heart and soul of the civilization of the day. Even
in modern times, the library has continued to be the bastion of higher learning,
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and thousands of books and periodicals under their nurturing care and
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While we at The Journal of American Academy of Business, Cambridge (JAABC) do
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root ourselves in reality by taking calculated steps in improving the reach of
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Journal.
A perusal of JAABC's Volume 3, Number 1 & 2, would indicate that the issue
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yet, it certainly provides timely information dealing with current business
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As soon as your campus librarian subscribes to JAABC, the Editorial Board will state your name under the Editorial Advisory Board for a year as a token of appreciation. Granted, stating your name under the EAB is not much in return for your time and energy. Regardless of the honorarium involved, you would do this act anyway for you believe in the worthy cause of getting JAABC the recognition it deserves by enlarging its circulation capacities.]
A symbiotic relationship like this one with our contributors and readers would
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enlightenment of the public. Being our reader and/or contributor, you all have
vested interest in the continued success of the Journal. As you are aware, in
order to survive and to grow, a periodical should be placed in its basic
element. As water is to fish, the library is to an academic publication. We
invite you to be part of the historic moment to participate in the rite of
passage of JAABC of coming into maturity by housing it in its most important
element, the public
library.
The Editorial Board members look forward to enlisting your enthusiasm with this
debutante program. Had Alexander the Great been here today, with his zeal for
education, he quite possibly would have assigned one of-his best legions of
experts in helping us launch JAABC into the "heart of civilization!" Owing to
its high quality articles, sooner or later JAABC will be in the library stacks
where it belongs anyway, but with your assistance we would expedite the process.
On behalf of Dr. Turan Senguder (Executive Chair) and Dr. Jean Gordon (Chair),
the Editorial Board extends their gratitude in anticipation of your cooperation
in this highly important matter. Thank you kindly for your
consideration.
*For forthcoming conference information, log on www.iaabc.com
Z.S.DEMIRDJIAN
Review Editor California State University, Long Beach,
CA
Note of Appreciation: Thanks to Ms. Sara Sluss who has just graciously accepted to catalog JAABC at California State University Library, Long Beach, CA
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Perspectives in Consumer Behavior: Paradigm Shifts in
Prospect
Dr.Z.S.Demirdjian,CaliforniaStateUniversity,LongBeach,CA Dr. Turan Senguder, The Journal of American Academy of Business,
Cambridge, Hollywood, FL
There never was in the world two
opinions alike, no more than two hairs or two grains; the most universal quality
is diversity.
Michel De Montaigne 1533-1592
ABSTRACT
Despite its adolescence, consumer behavior as a discipline has attained a
crowning position in marketing. Many professionals and academics characterize
consumer behavior as the key to contemporary marketing success. Over the years,
various approaches based on social sciences have been proposed and applied to
teaching and researching the consumer. Prompted by their ever-increasing
complexities, recently the interest in social sciences seemed to have waned.
Although there have not been seismic changes in the field, there have been some
shifts in paradigms. As the discipline develops, one important question is to
ask as to what approach to adopt for teaching and researching consumer behavior.
To broaden the underpinning theories of consumer behavior, paradigms outside the
social sciences could very well be tapped for additional understanding the
complex nature of the consumer. Several frontiers of other sciences seem
promising for the understanding the consumer. As is explained in this paper, the
prospects for an interdisciplinary approach outside the family of social
sciences appears brighter than ever for thinking outside the "black box" (i.e.,
mind) and for contributing to its dynamism.
INTRODUCTION
That human behavior is complex, replete with
controversies and contradictions, comes as no surprise to marketing academicians
as well as practioners. Consumer behavior is no exception. Against the backdrop
of widespread recognition of consumer behavior as being the key to contemporary
marketing success (Hawkins et al. 2003), the fundamental question has been as to
what approach to use in the study and teaching of this fascinating academic
field`? As Spiggle and Goodwin (1988), Tan and Sheth (1985), and van Raaij and
Bamossy (1993) have presented articles in their readings books, consumer
behavior over the years, has been the subject of many models and intellectual
arguments. There have been a number of debates between positivistic and
interpretive consumer researchers (Hudson and Ozanne 1988). Being a dynamic
field, such a condition is normal.
As Kernan (1995) indicates, compared to
most academic fields, consumer behavior is relatively very young. Therefore, the
field is still going through growing pains and development. All but several of
the pioneers are still living.
Many imponderables enter into the discussion
of the methods applied to teaching consumer behavior. Various assumptions
provide different approaches. Early in the history of consumer behavior, Berber
(1977) edited a book devoted to various aspects of consumer behavior from the
perspective of different disciplines. In the same vein, but from European
perspectives, Kassarjian (1994) has shown us the rich and varied scholarly
European roots of American consumer behavior. For instance, if behavior is
propelled by psychological variables, then the study relies heavily on human
motivation, perception, learning, etc. The result would be a psychological model
like the one proposed by Iloward and Sheth in 1969. The approach to teaching
consumer behavior would, then, depend heavily on concepts drawn from research
studies undertaken in marketing and psychology.
At first glance this paper
may look overdrawn, but considering the rich heritage of' literature of consumer
behavior as Kassarjian (1995) reported in his commemorative article titled "Some
recollections from a Quarter Century Ago," we would be hardly scratching the
surface. With that disclaimer in mind, we first plan to touch upon how this
exciting area of scientific inquiry, as an academic discipline and as a field of
research, has made use of a blend of economics, psychology, social psychology,
sociology, anthropology, and other related social science disciplines. Secondly,
an attempt will be made to answer the question whether the use of social
sciences have run their course in building a viable framework of essential
principles, concepts, and variables. Finally, we plan to present some frontiers
in other sciences as new paradigms, which seem promising to provide additional
knowledge for thinking outside the "black box" for teaching and for researching
consumer behavior.
THE SOCIAL SCIENCE FABRICS OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
The marketing concept,
which enthrones the consumer at the center of marketing strategy, has served as
the gravitational force for entrenching the field of consumer behavior in
marketing. Consumer behavior has been legitimized in marketing for it provides
the conceptual framework and strategic thinking for carrying out successful
segmentation of markets (Schiffman and Kanuk ?000). Since the underlying forces
and influences that propel the consumer into action are variously numerous, each
social science discipline has played a vital role in providing explanations. In
this way, the field of consumer behavior has been characterized by diversity of
viewpoints; as a result, the entire field now is based on an interdisciplinary
science (Kassarjian 1994).
Marketing has borrowed most heavily from a number
of social science disciplines (Witkowski 1993). Economics has always been the
Adam and Eve of marketing. Traditionally- economics has been more concerned with
the operation and dynamics of the economic system of society rather than with
the behavior of individual consumers or buyers. The focus has been on how the
system operates in the aggregate, not on why individual consumers behave as they
do. Furthermore, the economists' assumptions regarding the functioning of the
market
were purely theoretical in nature. Most marketers found these
assumptions hard to accept. From economics, marketing has adopted many concepts,
though, which include supply and demand, pricing theory, utility, marginal
analysis, and the role of income as a critical factor in purchasing behavior.
For many years, the economic man theory permeated marketing thought and practice
predicated on the assumption that consumers are rational decision makers who
actively seek information, objectively evaluate alternatives available to them,
and make rational selections of products or services to maximize their benefits.
The emotional side of the consumer, on the other hand, was neglected until
marketers began to explore it seriously.
The field of economics has provided
an underlying foundation for marketing, but it failed to provide marketing with
all of the concepts needed to understand the complexities of consumer
motivation. For example, Katona'swork in Economic Psychology (1951) basically
indicated that economic theory was insufficient in explaining market
fluctuations. By emphasizing lopsidedly the objectivity and rationality of the
consumer as a decision maker, the emotional side of the consumer was relegated.
Limited in providing viable explanations, marketing scholars began to seek
understanding of consumer behavior from other social sciences, notably from
psychology, social psychology, sociology, and anthropology.
Psychology as the
study of individual behavior has been one of the earliest and most extensively
used field from which concepts have been borrowed. Motivation, perception,
learning, beliefs, attitudes, etc. all have been used in explaining why the
consumer behaves the way he or she does. Models used for teaching consumer
behavior,thus, have mainly relied on the internal variables of the consumer in
explaining how, he or she processes incoming information and makes purchase
decisions (Howard 1963; Howard and Sheth 1969).
Social psychology is still
another source from which many concepts have been borrowed because this field is
concerned with the behavior of individuals in the presence of other individuals
or groups. Concepts such as social perceptions, social influence, social
rewards, peer pressure, social cues, social sanctions, etc. all shed light on
the mysteries of consumer behavior. Approaches to teaching consumer behavior
have emphasized external influences on consumption-related acts. The whole idea
behind this reasoning is that consumer behavior takes place within the context
of groups and other individuals' presence which influences consumer's processing
of information and decision making (Fngcl et al. 1967).
Sociology is the
study of human social behavior particularly in terms of the origins,
organizations, institutions, and development of human society. Although
sociology does not deal with consumer behavior specifically, it does deal with
the social context within which consumer behavior takes place. While psychology
focuses on the individual as a unit of analysis, sociology centers on groups and
social institutions. Concepts such as role theory, social class, family life
cycle, the diffusion of innovation process, and population groups also have
great implications for the marketing practitioner and consumer researcher. The
pedagogical stance taken in this area has stressed consumer behavior from
specific ;groups' standpoint. For example, by presenting the consumption-related
acts of African Americans and Mexican Americans, the focus here has been on the
comparison and contrasting of subcultures in their preference of products,
Series, and marketing conu1uanications.
Throughout the young age of
consumer behavior as a discipline, attempts have also been made to understanding
it holistically. Holbook (1987), for instance, advocated that consumer
researchers examine "...all facets of the value potentially provided when some
living organism acquires, uses, or disposes of any product...". The result has
been a multidimensional approach to teaching consumer behavior. Such approaches
have proved to be cumbersome for pedagogical purposes. Too many potpourri
variables of social sciences to mention and to cover in teaching consumer
behavior, complicated the scientific explanation of the subject. Being rather
too encompassing, the results usually would make students see the trees and not
the forest.
Occasionally, one of the social science disciplines may take to
the center stage, but it is the coalescing of these sciences that end up
explaining and to some extent predicting consumer behavior. It would be apt to
say that social sciences have served as the breadbasket for the study of
consumer behavior. One of the few common denominators among all of these fields,
despite their differences, is that consumer behavior stems from perceived need
of some sort; the assumption is that behavior is teleological (goal-directed).
As student of human behavior, we are interested in understanding consumer
behavior, especially as to why individuals act in certain consumption related
ways and with learning what internal and external influences impel them to act.
Much of marketing theory has its taproot in social sciences. It is likely that,
in the future, social sciences will make an even greater contribution to our
understanding of marketing and consumer behavior until there is a paradigmatic
quantum leap in the current perspectives. Collectively, social sciences have
been a source of progress as well as hindrance. For example. borrowing
psychological concepts indiscriminately has complicated rather than simplified
the work in understanding the consumer. For example, models of consumer
behavior, predicated on many variables, were difficult to validate empirically.
Moreover, these models proved to be pedagogically a bear. Thus, the interest in
psychology and sociology waned and cultural anthropology became the vogue,
giving rise to a new approach to studying and teaching consumer
behavior.
ANTHROPOLOGY AT THE HELM
Anthropology, the first cousin of sociology,
is another area of social science, which has concepts of relatively great
relevance to understanding consumer behavior. Unlike sociology, general
anthropology usually studies societies other than our present ones. It primarily
explores past patterns of behavior that may have an influence on our behavior
today. Folklore, cultural myths, gift giving, holiday observance, rituals,
superstitions, etc. that persist as behavioral influences are a part of
anthropological studies. Many techniques used by anthropologists in comparing
different cultures have been borrowed by marketers in making comparative studies
of marketing practices within different countries. Intercultural or
cross-cultural studies in consumer behavior have increased exponentially in the
last ten years.
The vast interest in cultural anthropology recently has moved
consumer research to postmodemism era. The period in which consumer research
initially developed is known as the modernist era. Positivists are researchers
who subscribe to the assumptions upon which modernism is based; like the
classical economists, they operate from the belief that the consumer makes
rational consumptive decisions after weighing alternatives. The goal of the
positivist is to predict consumer behavior (Sherry 1991). The research methods
of positivists were borrowed mainly from the natural sciences and range from
experiments, survey techniques, and observation. The findings of these studies
are either descriptive, empirical, and if based on probability samples, are
generalizable to larger populations. The data collected are quantitative in
nature and lend themselves to many parametric and nonparametric statistical
analyses.
POST MODERNISTIC ERA OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
While the period in which the
field of consumer research developed is called the modernist era, methods
borrowed from cultural anthropology ushered in the post modernistic era (Calder
and Tybout (1989). Social science academicians interested in the act of
consumption rather than in the act of cognitively deciding a purchase, applied
ethnography, semiotics, and depth interviews as employed in motivational
research popularized by Ernest Dichter (1960) in 1950s. The nature of
postmodernism is comprehensively presented in Belk's (1991) "Highways and
Buyways: Natuaralistic Research From the Consumer Behavior Odyssey," edition of
Association for Consumer Research publication. The research paradigm shift to
anthropological methods galvanized some researchers to produce a stream of'
qualitative research studies. Kassarjian (1994) commented on postmodern research
by stating whether it would be accepted as good anthropology, sound ethnography,
or objective semiotic research had yet to be seen.
In terms of usage,
ethnography has been most frequently used method in consumer research.
Essentially, ethnography is the technique in which the researcher places himself
or herself in the social setting to study the consumer's various cultural
practices. Consequently, the validity of the data gathered would depend on the
interpretation of the researcher. As such, the interpretive researcher engages
in subjective, qualitative research based on the assumption that there is no
objective truth, but that reality is subjective. The goat of the interpretive is
to gain understanding of consumer behavior in different situations rather than
predicting his or her consumption related acts.
Left to their own devices,
marketing academicians have reconciled the differences of the positivists and
interpretivists' approaches to the study of consumer behavior. While the
dichotomy of these two research perspectives indicate that they are different,
but, in fact, they are complimentary in nature. Both orientations and approaches
to research will produce a body of knowledge necessary for describing,
understanding, and predicting consumer behavior. Naturally, the anticipated
results of the positivists and interpretivists will benefit marketing management
in providing much-needed consumer-based information for formulating marketing
strategies.
THE STATUS OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCE ODYSSEY
At this juncture in the life
cycle of the field of consumer behavior, one may very well ask: Is anthropology
the end of our destination? Is the social science odyssey over? It would be safe
to say that the odyssey will continue, but it may very well take us also to
realms other than our traditional social sciences. Here is a brief set of
examples to clarify as to why the odyssey may very well take us to other
sciences in the quest to find positivistic ways to teach consumer behavior. Let
us assume that the consumer orders a hamburger for personal consumption. We can
offer plausible reasons behind that purchase from the following viewpoints as
shown in Table I:
Table 1 Possible Social Science Explanations for the Consumer Ordering a
Hamburger
Economic perspective (e.g., the price of the hamburger Haas
reduced),
psychological perspective (e.g., the consumer was hungry and since
it was weekend he or she wanted to enjoy eating out), Social psychological
perspective all of the consumer's friends ordered hamburgers so he or she did
the same), Sociological perspective (c.g., now that the consumer is an empty
nester, he or she can afford to cat out), and
.Anthropological perspective
(e.g., the consumer's American ancestors ate hamburgers so it was an American
tradition to relish the food).
All of the foregoing acts are explained from a
social science standpoint. How can we explain, if the same consumer had ordered
another hamburger after having eaten the first one -and assuming further that it
was not due to economic, psychological, social-psychological, sociological, and
anthropological reasons?
FRONTIERS OF OTHER SCIENCES FOR UNDERSTANDING THE CONSUMER
Well, it
leaves us one big and upcoming area to borrow concepts and these are
physio-pyschological variables. Physiological psychology is the study of the
interaction of the body with the mind. It is the study of the extent to which
behavior is caused by physical and chemical phenomena in the body (Morris 1996).
Kroeber-Riel (1979, 1980) pointed out that cognitive and psychological processes
originate from physiological ones. This field holds many promises for explaining
consumer behavior. For instance, the hypothalamus is that center of the brain
which mainly controls consumption (Zimbardo and Gerrig 1996). The chemical
changes due to the eating of the first hamburger results in a blood borne input
(i.e., efferent stimulus) to the brain to activate further consumption. Thus,
the individual would order one more hamburger to eat. Such a behavior is
explained based on the research findings on the functions of the hypothalamus
and other related areas of the brain (Valenstein, Cox, & Kakolewski 1970;
Zhang et al. 1994). Physio-psychology provides fascinating ways to help us
understand consumer behavior without looking into the consumer's "black box" for
hypothetically based variable explanations.
Another frontier for gathering
concepts to explain consumer behavior would be the field of biochemistry in the
area of food sciences. The focus here would be on the external variables such as
the makeup of the products we consume. Why do most consumers drink Coca Cola? Is
it because of the caffeine it contains? Many product ingredients have been found
to be addictive such as nicotine. For example, during the 1990s, evidence
emerged that the tobacco industry had manipulated the content of cigarettes to
enhance their addictive nature. In 1998, the industry reached a settlement
agreement with 46 American state governments to the tune of $206 billion..
According to Matthews' (2003) report "Multinational food companies have known
for years of research that suggests many of their products trigger chemical
reactions in the brain which lead people to overeat." Scientists working for
Nestle and Unilever have been unobtrusively investigating the chemical
composition of certain foods, such as chocolate biscuits, burgers and snacks
which make people binge on and thus become obese. Research in biochemistry,
especially in the area of food, is capable of explaining and even predicting
consumer behavior with high level of certainty.
The scientific buzzword
nowadays is ;genetics. Still another possible area to borrow concepts would be
in purely physiological research of human genetics (Feder 1998). It would be
enthralling to see how our genes direct our consumption behavior. Perhaps
Irlmians are all programmed to act in certain ways in their consumptive and
consumer-related behavior. Is the presence of certain genes compel its to
consume certain kinds of food, say "hot" dishes (which appeal to most Mexicans?)
Genetic science may very well come up with definite findings to explain consumer
behavior and thus we may strike a vein of truth in finding explanations and laws
of consumer behavior. Hopefully, these hard sciences will enable us to push the
frontiers of knowledge in consumer behavior. Obviously, these new frontiers for
the study of consumer behavior will cause the return of the positivistic
approach to research. Table 2 summarizes the explanations given for the consumer
ordering a second hamburger after having eaten the first one based on new
scientific areas other than social
sciences:
Table 2
Physio-Psychological-, Biochemistry-, and Genetic-Based
EaplanationsFor the Consumer's Ordering of a Second Hamburger
Physio-Psychological Perspective The consumption of the first hamburger
stimulated the c\citatory\ center of the hypothalamus other consumer to order
another hamburger to cat), Biochemistry Perspective (e-, the beef patty contains
certain chemicals in it such us tatty substances which stimulates craving for
further CO11Sumptl0n of hamburgers),
Genetic Perspective (e.g._ Certain
consumers are genetically programmed to \\ant to cat more hamburgers or meat
products than others).
Although these new frontiers of knowledge would
benefit the field of consumer behavior, conducting research in these areas of
specialization would seem beyond the capabilities of consumer researchers for
lack of formal training. I however, if one were to look at the turn of the
century, most marketing academicians were trained
in classical economics.
Today, we have marketing academicians who hold doctorates in psychology,
sociology, anthropology, etc. Once concepts are borrowed from these new areas,
it would entice new students to enter these various fields and later do research
in consumer behavior. In the future, these exotic areas for the marketing
academician may become the focus of research efforts since the promises of these
fields are profoundly compelling
THE JOURNEY OF DISCOVERY
Our journey for the search of new approaches
to explain consumer behavior may never end. We shall always find novel ways to
explain consumer behavior from a certain perspective based on a certain
assumption or discipline. Thinking out of the consumer's "black box" and getting
into his or her physical body constitutes a sharp paradigm shift. As De
Montaigne pointed out "...the most universal quality is diversity" in the world
when it comes to opinions, the same is also true with the study oh consumer
behavior. The basic nature of consumer behavior is diversity, diversity in
perspectives (theories) and diversity in research (methods). In fact, our
journey has just begun with many "doubts" in the way of all sciences,
considering the youthful age of the discipline which dates back merely to 1960s.
We face a long trek before we end up in "certainties" about our understanding
and prediction of consumer behavior.
To explain consumer behavior further,
several new frontiers in science were introduced in this paper, such as
physiological psychology, biochemistry, and genetics. We have been borrowing
freely from the social sciences, and now it is perhaps timely to borrow from the
physical sciences. These fields may define the future direction of consumer
behavior. As we have seen, paradigm shifts in consumer behavior theory and
research would enrich the field further by expanding its scope of investigation.
After all, a paradigm is a conceptual framework within which research is
conducted. These changes are consonant with the interdisciplinary nature of
consumer behavior. A shot of new blood would countervail inbreeding which would
stunt the growth of the young discipline.
"Sir, there is no royal road to
geometry" Euclid gently rebuked King Ptolemy I who once complained about the
difficulty of the theorems that Euclid expected him to grasp, wondering whether
there was not an easier way, or short cuts for him, to approach the subject. By
the same token, there are definitely no easy ways or short cuts to deciphering
the consumer. Therefore, let us range far and wide as we search for new ways to
describe, understand, and predict consumer behavior. Meanwhile, let anthropology
reign as the recent popular paradigm to studying and teaching consumer behavior
until another queen of a discipline ascends the throne and captures the
attention of marketing scholars intent on finding effective approaches to
teaching and researching consumer behavior. The quest for generalizable
explanations and accurate predictions of consumer behavior will continue because
a truly scientific odyssey has no set destinations on its long, if not infinite,
journey of discovery.
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