California State University Long Beach

Graduate Center for Public Policy and Administration

Summer 2002, Third Session

PPA 590 WOMEN & PUBLIC POLICY

PUBLIC POLICY-MAKERS’ ENVIRONMENT

             Political power is fragmented and dispersed through the separation of powers and the system of checks and balances. Many points of decision-making exist. Many persons and groups share power over policy. Interest groups can “shop around” for sympathetic units of government.

             This is designed to prevent abuse of power and guarantee individual liberties. It results in decentralization and increased needs for cooperation. It also appears to result in inefficiency, duplication, and costliness.

             The balance of power between the national and the state governments has shifted over time. There are still national policies on defense, transportation, interstate commence, etc. By tradition, the states dominate the areas of law enforcement, property rights, public education, land use regulation, construction and maintenance of highways, occupational and other licensing, mental health, public sanitation, etc.

POLITICAL CULTURE

             The US political culture values individual freedom, equality, progress, efficiency, and practicality, democracy, individualism, humanitarianism, practical and pragmatic regulation of the economy, deals with present problems rather than long-range planning; no ideological consistency; broadest scope possible for unrestricted private activity; free use of private property is favored over land use zoning or regulations. Differences in values produce different public policies, for example, private versus national health care systems; economic competition versus state-owned enterprises; etc. Differences in values constitute different political cultures:

             1) Individualistic--focuses on private concerns; government is a utilitarian device; politicians want to control government resources and potential rewards; minimal concern with policy issues

             2) Moralistic--focus is on government as a public service, government is a mechanism for advancing the public interest; government intervention in the economy is permissible for the public good; there is much concern with policy issues

             3) Traditionalist--paternalistic and elitist view of government, which is used to maintain the existing social order; only a small percentage of the population has read power; most citizens are inactive in politics or concerned with policy issues

OTHER CONDITIONS

             Differences in economic interests among small versus big business; capitalists versus employees; wholesalers versus retailers; manufacturers versus consumers; farmers versus importers; health care providers versus health care insurers; etc.

             Differences in economic status among weaker versus stronger parties; weaker parties are more likely to seek government intervention to combat stronger opponents.

             Differences in the state of the economy, whether in eras of high deficits versus balanced budgets; recession versus growth; inflation or deflation; high or low unemployment; depression or growth.

             Differences in resources between the federal and state governments, and among state governments, and between state and local governments, and among local governments, lead to differences in policies on education, welfare, libraries, police, fire, parks, etc.

             Differences in social eras, in demands for less or more equality, less or more criminalization of behavior, more or less conformity, more or less agreement on social issues.

            Characteristics of the population, such as size, age distribution, ethnic mix, geographic location, political values, social class structure, economic circumstances, and other factors will influence the type of policy proposals that are elaborated. There are values about what governments should do or not do, beliefs about the nature and exercise of political power and the purposes for which it may (or may not) be employed.

            Americans favor a participatory political culture along with a pragmatic approach to public policy, rather than systematic or long-range planning, or technical superiority. Beliefs which shape the interests which groups try to promote and protect also influence public policy, e.g., that big business is more efficient than small business, but that government is less efficient than private business; a minimal role for government-owned enterprise; and minimal regulation of business by government.

            Public opinion changes more often than fundamental values; public opinion usually concerns current issues; it is more important in the general direction rather than in the specific of public policy. Also, public opinion is not as effective in situations which require quick action, i.e., a crisis.

             The social system contains many groups formed on the basis of divisions, e.g., along lines of race, ethnicity, class, political party, religion, etc., such as unions, volunteers, churches, businesses, human rights, environmental groups, etc. When they seek to affect public policy they are called interest groups. There are many such groups in a pluralistic society such as the US. Competing groups serve to check and diffuse power, but power is still unequally distributed in society. Private groups dissatisfied with their situation or relationships with other groups can seek government redress for their situation.

             In the US there is considerable political power for those who control economic resources. Parties in the economic system (the production, distribution, and exchange of goods and services) which feel they are disadvantaged can seek government assistance to protect or advance their own interests, for example, employees versus employers, big versus small business, consumers versus sellers, debtors versus creditors, railroads versus trucking, etc.

             The institutional context is the pattern of habitual, regular, or stable behavior which develops over time. American governmental institutions include Federalism, the separation of powers, and the political party system. Federalism is the constitutional division of powers between the national and state governments. Congress has the duty of regulating interstate and foreign commerce, taxing and spending, establishing post offices and roads, making money, supporting national defense, and making all laws necessary to those functions. The states have any powers not expressly forbidden by the constitution or exercised by Congress, which generally include police, health and safety, welfare and morals, eminent domain, taxing and spending, and owing and operating economic enterprises; property ownership, regulation of trades and professions, education and welfare, highway construction and maintenance, law enforcement, etc.

             The power of the federal government expands:

-when there are problems that require a solution that is beyond the ability of any one state (inflation, unemployment, consumer protection, collective bargaining rights, industrial monopolies, and environmental protection).

-when uniform action is needed to make policies effective, e.g., food labeling.

-when federal action is needed to make state policies effective, e.g., interstate crime.

-when states fail to act adequately, in public education, civil rights, worker safety, child labor, etc.

             Federalism affects public policy because

1) groups have limited access to federal policy-makers, unless they have substantial resources;

2) Congress is more sensitive to local than national concerns because each member is elected from a state or district and Congress is unwilling to bypass state prerogatives;

3) federal policy may be frustrated by state actions (e.g., voting);

4) federal policy may rely on states to administer policies, so state preferences must be taken into account in order to secure state compliance and cooperation (e.g., housing subsidies, highway construction, welfare, agricultural subsidies, etc.);

The Separation of Powers affects public policy because:

1) it increases the number of access points and policy agendas;

2) it works to the benefit of those who do not want to enact legislation (many veto points);

3) defeats comprehensive policy-making because of different interests of each branch;

4) frustrates long-term policy-making because of short-term issues.

             The political party system affects policy-making because they obtain their strength from local membership and are highly decentralized, frustrating national unity. Staggered terms of office, different powers, different constituencies also frustrate unity among those elected from different parties. There are no strong, cohesive party strategies and no strong sanctions for straying from party policy. This strengthens the influence of interest groups and on those who can contribute to political campaigns.

OFFICIAL POLICY-MAKERS

1. Executive Branch

             Presidents, Governors, Mayors are expected to develop comprehensive plans for policy.

2. Legislative Branch

             Congress, state legislatures, city councils are the major bodies charged with adopting public policy after debate and consideration of the issues.

3. Judicial Branch

             Establishes or overturns policy through judicial review and statutory interpretation; determines constitutionality of actions by the legislative and executive branches; helps shape policy by its interpretation of the US Constitution, by deciding what the intent of policy is; common law tradition means that judicial decisions have the effect of law; increasing tendency to convert political issues into legal matters.

4. Administrative Agencies

             Generally highly technical and complex knowledge of policy; may have a monopoly on information; have rule-making power; can propose policy; have latitude in policy implementation.

UNOFFICIAL POLICY ACTORS

1. Interest groups

             Express demands, articulate interests, present alternatives for public policy; have information, members, resources, and high degree of organization; have leadership, political skills, cohesiveness and social status; may flourish where political parties are weak; there may be competing interest groups that seek different decision sites, where official actors are more favorable to their cause.

2. Political Parties

             Parties care first of all about maintaining power and controlling government and second about policy; traditional US parties are not policy-oriented, and have little difference in policy proposals; two-party systems promote more vague and broad policy while multi-party systems promote more specific and narrow policies.

3. Research Institutes

             A number of nationally-known research institutes influence public policy through their knowledge, information, full-time analytical staff, ex-government officials on staff, expertise, status, and access to official policy-makers; generally promote ideologically-based policy agendas and alternatives.

4. Media

             Media influence policy through reports of public attitudes and opinions, but may also be used by policy-makers to shape public opinions and attitudes on policy issues.

5. Citizens

             Citizens have the right to participate in politics through various means, e.g., referenda, petitions, elections, recalls, votes, and individual and group activities; through personal contact with official and unofficial policy-makers; and through personal initiatives, campaigns, books, etc.