* As the Earth moves in its orbit, the positions of stars appear to shift back and forth just as the apparent direction of falling raindrops changes as we move back and forth during a rainstorm. This effect, the aberration of starlight, was the first direct evidence for the revolution of the Earth.
* The rotation of the Earth causes the planet to have an oblate
shape and have an equatorial bulge. The Coriolis effect, also
caused by the Earth's rotation, causes apparent deflections of
moving objects and currents of air and water. The Coriolis effect
is responsible for spiral patterns in atmospheric circulation.
* Minerals are solid chemical compounds. Rocks are assemblages
of minerals. We classify rocks according to whether they were
formed from cooling magma (igneous), collected sediments (sedimentary),
or were transformed by high pressure and temperature (metamorphic).
* The Earth's surface is divided into ocean basins and continents.
The continents contain very old rocks, but the ocean basins are
relatively young.
* Pressure increases as depth within the Earth increases. A typical
value of pressure in the Earth is 1 million atmospheres. Such
high pressures have an effect on the density, mineral structure,
and molten state of rock.
* The magnetic field of the Earth resembles that of a bar magnet,
but it is actually produced by flows of electrically conductive
material in the interior. The magnetic field direction reverses
on a time scale of hundreds of thousands of years or less.
* The study of seismic waves has led to knowledge of the variation
of density with increasing depth in the Earth. Zones in which
density changes rapidly as depth increases correspond to regions
of changing mineral structure, molten state, or chemical composition.
* The layers of the interior are the crust, which is made of lighter
rock; the mantle, which is made of denser rock; and the core,
which is composed mostly of metal. The crust and outer mantle
make up the lithosphere, a rigid shell. Beneath the lithosphere
is the aesthenosphere, a partially melted, plastic zone.
* Plate tectonics describes the Earth's crust as divided into
about a dozen moving plates. New crust is produced at oceanic
ridges, where magma reaches the surface. The plates are driven
apart by the spreading of the sea floor. When plates collide or
move past each other, earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain building,
and ocean trenches result.
* Atmospheric layers are defined by changes in temperature with
altitude. Warm layers are those in which solar radiation is absorbed.
Transparent layers are cool. The lowest layer, the troposphere,
is heated by the ground. Convection in the troposphere causes
weather.
* The greenhouse effect insulates the Earth by making it difficult
for infrared radiation to escape into space. The gases mainly
responsible for the absorption of infrared radiation are carbon
dioxide and water vapor. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth
would be about 14 K (25 degrees F) cooler.
* The Earth's magnetic field dominates the motion of electrons
and ions in the magnetosphere. Within the magnetosphere are regions
of trapped electrons and ions known as the Van Allen belts. Although
gas moving outward from the Sun can't usually penetrate the magnetosphere,
it can do so near the magnetic poles. When these energetic particles
strike the upper atmosphere, they cause the aurorae.
* The Earth formed by the accumulation of infalling bodies, some
of which were as large as the Moon or Mercury. Energy from the
impacts of these bodies kept the Earth molten and permitted heavy
materials to sink to the center to form the core. The oceans and
atmosphere accumulated from gas that emerged from the interior
in volcanic eruptions. There would be much more carbon dioxide
in the present atmosphere if it had not dissolved in the oceans
and formed carbonaceous rocks. The oxygen in the atmosphere is
mostly the result of photosynthesis by plants.
aberration of starlight aerosol aesthenosphere
amino acids aurora australis aurora borealis basalt bow shock
core Coriolis effect crust differentiation dynamo exosphere greenhouse
effect igneous rock ionospherelava
lithosphere magma magnetopause magnetosphere magnetotail mantle
mesopause mesosphere metamorphic rock
mineral oblate outgassing plate tectonics plates primeval atmosphere
proteins sea floor spreading secondary atmosphere sedimentary
rock seismic wave seismometers silicates solar wind stratosphere
subduction thermosphere transform fault tropopause troposphere
Van Allen belts zone of convergence zone of divergence
1. Which of the following occurs because of the revolution of the Earth about the sun and cannot be accounted for in geocentric models of the solar system? stellar parallax
2. As a result of the Coriolis effect, a missile fired northward
from the equator will seem to be deflected toward the east
3. The rigid outer layer of the solid Earth is the lithosphere
4. S waves cannot travel through the Earth's outer core. What
does this tell us about the outer core? the outer core is liquid
5. Sea-floor spreading and continental drift are believed to be
caused by which of the following? convection currents in the mantle
6. In the plate tectonic model of the Earth's crustal activity,
where is most of the new crustal material formed? along mid ocean
ridges
7. What are the two most abundant gases in the earth's atmosphere?
nitrogen and oxygen
8. The layer of the Earth's atmosphere in which weather occurs
is the troposphere
9. What causes the Earth's mesosphere (also known as the ozone
layer) to be warmer than layers just above or below it? ozone
absorbs solar energy
10. What produces auroras? collisions of high energy particles
with atmospheric gas
lithosphere